Malaria is caused by a parasite called Plasmodium, which is transmitted via the bites of infected mosquitoes. In the human body, the parasites multiply in the liver, and then infect red blood cells.
Symptoms of malaria include fever, headache, and vomiting, and usually appear between 10 and 15 days after the mosquito bite.
If not treated, malaria can quickly become life-threatening by disrupting the blood supply to vital organs. In many parts of the world, the parasites have developed resistance to a number of malaria medicines.
Key interventions to control malaria include: prompt and effective treatment with artemisinin-based combination therapies; use of insecticidal nets by people at risk; and indoor residual spraying with insecticide to control the vector mosquitoes.
Friday, April 17, 2009
Listeria infections
Listeriosis is an infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Transmission is generally through eating contaminated food, in particular dairy products and ready-to-eat meat and fish products.
The bacteria have been found in a variety of raw foods, as well as unpasteurized milk. They are destroyed by cooking, but can grow at refrigeration temperatures. The symptoms of infection include fever, muscle aches, and sometimes nausea or diarrhoea.
If infection spreads to the nervous system, headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance and convulsions may occur. In otherwise healthy individuals, infection is usually mild. However, in pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage.
stillbirth, premature delivery, or infection of the newborn.People with a damaged immune system and the elderly are also at increased risk of more severe disease. The disease has a high fatality rate in the susceptible population.
The bacteria have been found in a variety of raw foods, as well as unpasteurized milk. They are destroyed by cooking, but can grow at refrigeration temperatures. The symptoms of infection include fever, muscle aches, and sometimes nausea or diarrhoea.
If infection spreads to the nervous system, headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance and convulsions may occur. In otherwise healthy individuals, infection is usually mild. However, in pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage.
stillbirth, premature delivery, or infection of the newborn.People with a damaged immune system and the elderly are also at increased risk of more severe disease. The disease has a high fatality rate in the susceptible population.
Radiation, Ionizing
Ionizing radiation is the energy or particles (protons, electrons or neutrons) produced by unstable atoms of radioactive materials.
It is present in the environment, as a result of both naturally occurring radioactive minerals and cosmic radiation arriving from outer space. Ionizing radiation is also produced by certain.
human activities, such as medicine and industry, and may result from accidents in nuclear facilities and nuclear bomb explosions.When absorbed by the body, radiation produces toxic free radicals.
Exposure to high levels of radiation can cause substantial damage to human body tissues, and may lead to death. Prolonged exposure to lower levels is also associated with increased risk of ill-health
It is present in the environment, as a result of both naturally occurring radioactive minerals and cosmic radiation arriving from outer space. Ionizing radiation is also produced by certain.
human activities, such as medicine and industry, and may result from accidents in nuclear facilities and nuclear bomb explosions.When absorbed by the body, radiation produces toxic free radicals.
Exposure to high levels of radiation can cause substantial damage to human body tissues, and may lead to death. Prolonged exposure to lower levels is also associated with increased risk of ill-health
Intellectual property
This page provides links to descriptions of activities, reports, news and events, as well as contacts and cooperating partners in the various WHO programmes and offices working on this topic. Also shown are links to related web sites and topics.
Intellectual property is a form of new knowledge or a creation which is protected by various kind of intellectual property right (IPR). IPRs are rights awarded to inventors or creators which allow them to prevent others from making unauthorized use of their property.
They include patents and copyright, which offer protection for limited periods. In the context of public health, patents are the most important IPR.
Patents provide the inventor with the right to prevent others from making, selling, distributing, importing or using their invention, generally for a period of 20 years. To obtain a patent the inventor must also disclose the knowledge on which the invention is based.
The temporary exclusion of direct competition provides an incentive for invention and innovation by allowing producers of a new medicine to set prices at a level necessary to recoup the costs of their research and development expenditure and make a return on their investment.
Intellectual property is a form of new knowledge or a creation which is protected by various kind of intellectual property right (IPR). IPRs are rights awarded to inventors or creators which allow them to prevent others from making unauthorized use of their property.
They include patents and copyright, which offer protection for limited periods. In the context of public health, patents are the most important IPR.
Patents provide the inventor with the right to prevent others from making, selling, distributing, importing or using their invention, generally for a period of 20 years. To obtain a patent the inventor must also disclose the knowledge on which the invention is based.
The temporary exclusion of direct competition provides an incentive for invention and innovation by allowing producers of a new medicine to set prices at a level necessary to recoup the costs of their research and development expenditure and make a return on their investment.
Health workforce
Health workers are "all people engaged in actions whose primary intent is to enhance health" (World Health Report ). Workers in health systems around the world are experiencing increasing stress and insecurity as they react to a complex array of forces.
Ageing population, new diseases as well as increasing burden of current diseases, escalating conflicts and violence, are all challenges to which the workforce must be prepared to respond.
The unmistakable imperative is to strengthen the workforce so that health systems can tackle crippling diseases and achieve national and global health goals.
A strong human infrastructure is fundamental to closing today’s gap between health promise and health reality, and anticipating the health challenges of the st century
Ageing population, new diseases as well as increasing burden of current diseases, escalating conflicts and violence, are all challenges to which the workforce must be prepared to respond.
The unmistakable imperative is to strengthen the workforce so that health systems can tackle crippling diseases and achieve national and global health goals.
A strong human infrastructure is fundamental to closing today’s gap between health promise and health reality, and anticipating the health challenges of the st century
Dracunculiasis
Dracunculiasis is infection with Dracunculus medinensis, a nematode worm. It is caused by drinking water containing water fleas (Cyclops species) that have ingested Dracunculus larvae.
In the human body, the larvae are released and migrate through the intestinal wall into body tissues, where they develop into adult worms.
The female worms move through the person’s subcutaneous tissue, causing intense pain, and eventually emerge through the skin, usually at the feet, producing oedema, a blister and eventually an ulcer, accompanied by fever, nausea, and vomiting. If they come into contact with water as they are emerging, the female worms discharge their larvae, setting in motion a new life cycle.
There are no drugs available for the treatment of this disease. However, it can be prevented by protecting water sources and filtering potentially contaminated water
In the human body, the larvae are released and migrate through the intestinal wall into body tissues, where they develop into adult worms.
The female worms move through the person’s subcutaneous tissue, causing intense pain, and eventually emerge through the skin, usually at the feet, producing oedema, a blister and eventually an ulcer, accompanied by fever, nausea, and vomiting. If they come into contact with water as they are emerging, the female worms discharge their larvae, setting in motion a new life cycle.
There are no drugs available for the treatment of this disease. However, it can be prevented by protecting water sources and filtering potentially contaminated water
Essential Medicines
This page provides links to descriptions of activities, reports, news and events, as well as contacts and cooperating partners in the various WHO programmes and offices working on this topic. Also shown are links to related web sites and topics.
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness.
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness.
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Essential Medicines
This page provides links to descriptions of activities, reports, news and events, as well as contacts and cooperating partners in the various WHO programmes and offices working on this topic. Also shown are links to related web sites and topics.
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative costeffectivenes
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population. They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative costeffectivenes
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Dengue
Dengue is transmitted by the bite of an Aedes mosquito infected with any one of the four dengue viruses. It occurs in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Symptoms appear 3—14 days after the infective bite.
Dengue fever is a febrile illness that affects infants, young children and adults.
Symptoms range from a mild fever, to incapacitating high fever, with severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pain, and rash. There are no specific antiviral medicines for dengue. It is important to maintain hydration. Use of acetylsalicylic acid (e.g. aspirin) and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. Ibuprofen) is not recommended
Dengue fever is a febrile illness that affects infants, young children and adults.
Symptoms range from a mild fever, to incapacitating high fever, with severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pain, and rash. There are no specific antiviral medicines for dengue. It is important to maintain hydration. Use of acetylsalicylic acid (e.g. aspirin) and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g. Ibuprofen) is not recommended
Stroke, Cerebrovascular accident
A stroke is caused by the interruption of the blood supply to the brain, usually because a blood vessel bursts or is blocked by a clot. This cuts off the supply of oxygen and nutrients, causing damage to the brain tissue.
The most common symptom of a stroke is sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm or leg, most often on one side of the body.
Other symptoms include: confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes; difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; fainting or unconsciousness.
The effects of a stroke depend on which part of the brain is injured and how severely it is affected. A very severe stroke can cause sudden death.
The most common symptom of a stroke is sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm or leg, most often on one side of the body.
Other symptoms include: confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes; difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; fainting or unconsciousness.
The effects of a stroke depend on which part of the brain is injured and how severely it is affected. A very severe stroke can cause sudden death.
Campylobacter
Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria that are a major cause of gastroenteritis throughout the world. Infection occurs mainly following consumption of contaminated undercooked poultry or contaminated water.
The most common symptoms of campylobacter infection include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms usually start 2–5 days after infection, and last for 3–6 days.
Specific treatment is not usually necessary, except to replace electrolytes and water lost through diarrhoea, but antimicrobials may be needed to treat invasive cases and the carrier state.
Severe complications, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, may follow campylobacter infection.
The most common symptoms of campylobacter infection include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms usually start 2–5 days after infection, and last for 3–6 days.
Specific treatment is not usually necessary, except to replace electrolytes and water lost through diarrhoea, but antimicrobials may be needed to treat invasive cases and the carrier state.
Severe complications, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, may follow campylobacter infection.
Traditional medicine
Traditional medicine (TM) refers to the knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures, used in the maintenance of health and in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness.
Traditional medicine covers a wide variety of therapies and practices which vary from country to country and region to region. In some countries, it is referred to as "alternative" or "comTraditional medicine has been used for thousands of years with great contributions made by practitioners to human health, particularly as primary health care providers at the community level.
TM/CAM has maintained its popularity worldwide. Since the 1990s its use has surged in many developed and developing countriesplementary" medicine (CAM).
Traditional medicine covers a wide variety of therapies and practices which vary from country to country and region to region. In some countries, it is referred to as "alternative" or "comTraditional medicine has been used for thousands of years with great contributions made by practitioners to human health, particularly as primary health care providers at the community level.
TM/CAM has maintained its popularity worldwide. Since the 1990s its use has surged in many developed and developing countriesplementary" medicine (CAM).
Fly Ash
Fly ash is a product of burning finely ground coal in a boiler to produce electricity. It is removed from the plant exhaust gases primarily by electrostatic precipitators, or baghouses and secondarily by scrubber systems. Physically, fly ash is a very fine, powdery material, composed mostly of silica nearly all particles are spherical in shape. Fly ash is generally light tan in color and consists mostly of silt-sized and clay-sized glassy spheres. This gives fly ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder.
Fly ash is generally light tan in color and consists mostly of silt-sized and clay-sized glassy spheres. This gives fly ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. Fly ash is a pozzolan, a siliceous material which in the presence of water will react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to produce cementitious compounds. Because of its spherical shape and pozzolanic properties, fly ash is useful in cement and concrete applications. The spherical shape and particle size distribution of fly ash also make it a good mineral filler in hot mix asphalt applications and improve the fluidity of flowable fill and grout when it is used for those applications.
Fly ash applications include its use as a raw metarial conrete products and grout Feed stock in the production of cement Fill material for structural applications and embankments Ingredient in waste stabilization and/or solidification Ingredient in soil modification and/or stabilization Component of flowable fill Component in road bases, sub-bases, and pavement Mineral filler in asphalt
Fly ash is generally light tan in color and consists mostly of silt-sized and clay-sized glassy spheres. This gives fly ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. Fly ash is a pozzolan, a siliceous material which in the presence of water will react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to produce cementitious compounds. Because of its spherical shape and pozzolanic properties, fly ash is useful in cement and concrete applications. The spherical shape and particle size distribution of fly ash also make it a good mineral filler in hot mix asphalt applications and improve the fluidity of flowable fill and grout when it is used for those applications.
Fly ash applications include its use as a raw metarial conrete products and grout Feed stock in the production of cement Fill material for structural applications and embankments Ingredient in waste stabilization and/or solidification Ingredient in soil modification and/or stabilization Component of flowable fill Component in road bases, sub-bases, and pavement Mineral filler in asphalt
Thursday, April 16, 2009
Background Information and Guidance
RCRA Training Module: "Introduction to Hazardous Waste Incinerators This document provides an overview of the RCRA regulations governing hazardous waste incinerators found in CFR Parts and Subpart O. The document includes an overview of what an incinerator is and how incinerators are regulated.
RCRA Training Module: "Introduction to Boilers and Industrial Furnaces" This document provides an overview of the RCRA regulations governing boilers and industrial furnaces (BIFs) found in CFR Subpart H. The document includes an overview of the requirements for processing hazardous waste in BIFs, including the distinctions between permitted and interim status units, and explains the requirements for specially regulated BIF units.
Report on Emergency Incidents at Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities and Other Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities This report provides a compilation of information on reported emergency incidents at hazardous waste combustion facilities and other TSDFs regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). It is limited to emergency incidents such as fires, explosions, hazardous waste spills, or unauthorized releases of hazardous waste. The information contained in this report was obtained from Regional and State waste combustion experts and permit writers.
Memorandum: Clarification of the Land Disposal Restrictions' Dilution Prohibition and Combustion of Inorganic Metal-Bearing Hazardous WastesThis EPA memo presents a Statement of Policy under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) clarifying the application of the Land Disposal Restrictions prohibition on dilution to combustion of certain inorganic metal-bearing hazardous wastes. The memo addresses the question of whether combustion of prohibited inorganic hazardous wastes can be a type of impermissible dilution. Presents distinctions between "adequate treatment" and potential violations of the dilution prohibition. The memo advocates the treatment of metal-bearing hazardous wastes by metal recovery or stabilization techniques over combustion methods. An appendix containing descriptions of wastes affected by the guidelines set forth in this Policy is included.
RCRA Training Module: "Introduction to Boilers and Industrial Furnaces" This document provides an overview of the RCRA regulations governing boilers and industrial furnaces (BIFs) found in CFR Subpart H. The document includes an overview of the requirements for processing hazardous waste in BIFs, including the distinctions between permitted and interim status units, and explains the requirements for specially regulated BIF units.
Report on Emergency Incidents at Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities and Other Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities This report provides a compilation of information on reported emergency incidents at hazardous waste combustion facilities and other TSDFs regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). It is limited to emergency incidents such as fires, explosions, hazardous waste spills, or unauthorized releases of hazardous waste. The information contained in this report was obtained from Regional and State waste combustion experts and permit writers.
Memorandum: Clarification of the Land Disposal Restrictions' Dilution Prohibition and Combustion of Inorganic Metal-Bearing Hazardous WastesThis EPA memo presents a Statement of Policy under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) clarifying the application of the Land Disposal Restrictions prohibition on dilution to combustion of certain inorganic metal-bearing hazardous wastes. The memo addresses the question of whether combustion of prohibited inorganic hazardous wastes can be a type of impermissible dilution. Presents distinctions between "adequate treatment" and potential violations of the dilution prohibition. The memo advocates the treatment of metal-bearing hazardous wastes by metal recovery or stabilization techniques over combustion methods. An appendix containing descriptions of wastes affected by the guidelines set forth in this Policy is included.
Drafting
Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information.
A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program.
Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of computermerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.
Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis(FEA) and computational fluid dynamics(CFD).
A U.S. mechanical engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing(CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program.
Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of computermerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.
Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis(FEA) and computational fluid dynamics(CFD).
Structural analysis
Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail. Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for failure.
Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.
Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause.
Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.
Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.
Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause.
Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.
Mechatronics and robotics
Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanism, and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software.
A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer.
Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).
Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to insure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.
A common example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer.
Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion) and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).
Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to insure better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.
CHEMICAL ENGEERNING
Chemical engineers design processes to ensure the most economical operation. This means that the entire production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both simplify and complicate "showcase" reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. On the other hand, reactions with a low yield can be recycled continuously, which would be complex, arduous work if done by hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 6-step, or even 12-step evaporators to reuse the vaporization energy for an economic advantage. In contrast, laboratory chemists evaporate samples in a single step.
The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. distillation or filtration) are called unit operations and consist of chemical reactions, mass-, heat- and mometu- transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the purpose of chemical synthesis and/or chemical separation. Some processes are a combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. reactive distillation).
Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using mas balances laws that apply to discrete parts of equipment, unit operations, or an entire plant. In doing so,
chemical engineers must also use principles of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics and transport phenomena. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (see List of Chemical Process Simulators) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.
The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. distillation or filtration) are called unit operations and consist of chemical reactions, mass-, heat- and mometu- transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the purpose of chemical synthesis and/or chemical separation. Some processes are a combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. reactive distillation).
Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are conservation of mass, conservation of momentum and conservation of energy. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using mas balances laws that apply to discrete parts of equipment, unit operations, or an entire plant. In doing so,
chemical engineers must also use principles of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics and transport phenomena. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (see List of Chemical Process Simulators) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.
Software design
Compatibility - The software is able to operate with other products that are designed for interoperability with another product. For example, a piece of software may be backward-compatible with an older version of itself. Extensibility - New capabilities can be added to the software without major changes to the underlying architecture.
Fault-tolerance - The software is resistant to and able to recover from component failure. Maintainability - The software can be restored to a specified condition within a specified period of time. For example, antivirus software may include the ability to periodically receive virus definition updates in order to maintain the software's effectiveness.
Modularity - the resulting software comprises well defined, independent components. That leads to better maintainability. The components could be then implemented and tested in isolation before being integrated to form a desired software system. This allows division of work in a software development project.
Packaging - Printed material such as the box and manuals should match the style designated for the target market and should enhance usability. All compatibility information should be visible on the outside of the package. All components required for use should be included in the package or specified as a requirement on the outside of the package.
Reliability - The software is able to perform a required function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reusability - the modular components designed should capture the essence of the functionality expected out of them and no more or less. This single-minded purpose renders the components reusable wherever there are similar needs in other designs.
Robustness - The software is able to operate under stress or tolerate unpredictable or invalid input. For example, it can be designed with a resilience to low memory conditions. Security - The software is able to withstand hostile acts and influences.
Usability - The software user interface must be intuitive (and often aesthetically pleasing) to its target user/audience. In many cases, online help should be included and also carefully designed.
Fault-tolerance - The software is resistant to and able to recover from component failure. Maintainability - The software can be restored to a specified condition within a specified period of time. For example, antivirus software may include the ability to periodically receive virus definition updates in order to maintain the software's effectiveness.
Modularity - the resulting software comprises well defined, independent components. That leads to better maintainability. The components could be then implemented and tested in isolation before being integrated to form a desired software system. This allows division of work in a software development project.
Packaging - Printed material such as the box and manuals should match the style designated for the target market and should enhance usability. All compatibility information should be visible on the outside of the package. All components required for use should be included in the package or specified as a requirement on the outside of the package.
Reliability - The software is able to perform a required function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reusability - the modular components designed should capture the essence of the functionality expected out of them and no more or less. This single-minded purpose renders the components reusable wherever there are similar needs in other designs.
Robustness - The software is able to operate under stress or tolerate unpredictable or invalid input. For example, it can be designed with a resilience to low memory conditions. Security - The software is able to withstand hostile acts and influences.
Usability - The software user interface must be intuitive (and often aesthetically pleasing) to its target user/audience. In many cases, online help should be included and also carefully designed.
. HISTORY OE COMPUTER
W. Dijsktra wrote his seminal paper, "Go To Statement Considered Harmfu l", in 1968 and David Parnas introduced the key concept of modularity and information hiding in 1972 to help programmers deal with the ever increasing complexity of software systes. A software system for managing the hardware called an operating system was also introduced, most notably by Unix in 1969. In 1967, the Simula language introduced the object-oriented programming paradigm.
These advances in software were met with more advances in computer hardware. In the mid 1970s, the microcomputer was introduced, making it economical for hobbyists to obtain a computer and write software for it. This in turn lead to the now famous Personal Computer or PC and Microsoft Windows. The Software Development Life Cycle or SDLC was also starting to appear as a consensus for centralized construction of software in the mid 1980s.
The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the introduction of several new Simula-inspired object-oriented programming languages, including C++, Smalltalk, and Objective C.Open-source software started to appear in the early 90s in the form of Linux and other software introducing the "bazaar" or decentralized style of constructing software. Then the Internet and World Wide Web hit in the mid 90s changing the engineering of software once again.
Distributed Systems gained sway as a way to design systems and the Java programming language was introduced as another step in abstraction having its own virtual machine. Programmers collaborated and wrote the Agile Manifesto that favored more light weight processes to create cheaper and more timely software.The current definition of software engineering is still being debated by practitioners today as they struggle to come up with ways to produce software that is "cheaper, bigger, quicker".
These advances in software were met with more advances in computer hardware. In the mid 1970s, the microcomputer was introduced, making it economical for hobbyists to obtain a computer and write software for it. This in turn lead to the now famous Personal Computer or PC and Microsoft Windows. The Software Development Life Cycle or SDLC was also starting to appear as a consensus for centralized construction of software in the mid 1980s.
The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the introduction of several new Simula-inspired object-oriented programming languages, including C++, Smalltalk, and Objective C.Open-source software started to appear in the early 90s in the form of Linux and other software introducing the "bazaar" or decentralized style of constructing software. Then the Internet and World Wide Web hit in the mid 90s changing the engineering of software once again.
Distributed Systems gained sway as a way to design systems and the Java programming language was introduced as another step in abstraction having its own virtual machine. Programmers collaborated and wrote the Agile Manifesto that favored more light weight processes to create cheaper and more timely software.The current definition of software engineering is still being debated by practitioners today as they struggle to come up with ways to produce software that is "cheaper, bigger, quicker".
Course Information
Individuals must register for courses with the NEWWA. Click here to register for upcoming NEWWA courses. Individuals, who have successfully completed the NEWWA training course outside of Connecticut and want to apply for a Connecticut Certificate as a Backflow Prevention Device Tester, must attend the presentation on Connecticut regulations given during an approved course given in Connecticut.
In order to attend this presentation, individuals must register with the NEWWA. In Connecticut, regulations require that buildings be inspected for cross connections by a person who has completed and passed a course on cross connection inspections administered or approved by the DPH.
Currently, the NEWWA has an approved course on cross connection inspections and interested individuals should visit the web page for more information. In lieu of a course on cross connection inspections, a person may complete and pass a course on the testing of backflow preventers administered or approved by DPH and receive training from a Cross Connection Inspector who has met the requirements of the Regulations of Connecticut State Agencies 25-32-11(h). Once a person has completed the field training and met the above requirements the Verification of Field Training(pdf) application must be completed and returned to the DPH within one year after the date of the most recent exam results or field training.
In Connecticut, regulations require that certain backflow prevention devices be tested by a person who has completed and passed a course on the testing of backflow preventers administered or approved by the Department of Public Health (DPH). Once a person has completed and passed such a course the Application for Certification must be completed and returned to the DPH within one year after the date of the most recent exam results.
The following table lists upcoming training courses offered by the New England Water Works Association (NEWWA) that have been approved by the Department of Public Health for the testing of backflow prevention devices. Training and Certification of Backflow Prevention Device InspectorsIndividuals must register for courses with the NEWWA. Click here to register for upcoming NEWWA courses. Individuals, who have successfully completed the NEWWA training course outside of Connecticut and want to apply for a Connecticut Certificate as a Backflow Prevention Device Tester, must attend the presentation on Connecticut regulations given during an approved course given in Connecticut. In order to attend this presentation, individuals must register with the NEWWA
In order to attend this presentation, individuals must register with the NEWWA. In Connecticut, regulations require that buildings be inspected for cross connections by a person who has completed and passed a course on cross connection inspections administered or approved by the DPH.
Currently, the NEWWA has an approved course on cross connection inspections and interested individuals should visit the web page for more information. In lieu of a course on cross connection inspections, a person may complete and pass a course on the testing of backflow preventers administered or approved by DPH and receive training from a Cross Connection Inspector who has met the requirements of the Regulations of Connecticut State Agencies 25-32-11(h). Once a person has completed the field training and met the above requirements the Verification of Field Training(pdf) application must be completed and returned to the DPH within one year after the date of the most recent exam results or field training.
In Connecticut, regulations require that certain backflow prevention devices be tested by a person who has completed and passed a course on the testing of backflow preventers administered or approved by the Department of Public Health (DPH). Once a person has completed and passed such a course the Application for Certification must be completed and returned to the DPH within one year after the date of the most recent exam results.
The following table lists upcoming training courses offered by the New England Water Works Association (NEWWA) that have been approved by the Department of Public Health for the testing of backflow prevention devices. Training and Certification of Backflow Prevention Device InspectorsIndividuals must register for courses with the NEWWA. Click here to register for upcoming NEWWA courses. Individuals, who have successfully completed the NEWWA training course outside of Connecticut and want to apply for a Connecticut Certificate as a Backflow Prevention Device Tester, must attend the presentation on Connecticut regulations given during an approved course given in Connecticut. In order to attend this presentation, individuals must register with the NEWWA
Onchocerciasis
Onchocerciasis is a parasitic disease caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus. It is transmitted through the bites of infected blackflies of Simulium species, which carry immature larval forms of the parasite from human to human.
In the human body, the larvae form nodules in the subcutaneous tissue, where they mature to adult worms. After mating, the female adult worm can release up to 1000 microfilariae a day. These move through the body, and when they die they cause a variety of conditions, including blindness, skin rashes, lesions, intense itching and skin depigmentation.
In a number of countries, onchocerciasis has been controlled through spraying of blackfly breeding sites with insecticide. In addition, a drug is available that kills the microfilariae, alleviating symptoms and reducing transmission.
An international control effort aims to bring annual treatment with this drug to all populations at risk by the year 2010. When that is achieved, onchocerciasis may cease to be a public health problem.
In the human body, the larvae form nodules in the subcutaneous tissue, where they mature to adult worms. After mating, the female adult worm can release up to 1000 microfilariae a day. These move through the body, and when they die they cause a variety of conditions, including blindness, skin rashes, lesions, intense itching and skin depigmentation.
In a number of countries, onchocerciasis has been controlled through spraying of blackfly breeding sites with insecticide. In addition, a drug is available that kills the microfilariae, alleviating symptoms and reducing transmission.
An international control effort aims to bring annual treatment with this drug to all populations at risk by the year 2010. When that is achieved, onchocerciasis may cease to be a public health problem.
Listeria infections
Listeriosis is an infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Transmission is generally through eating contaminated food, in particular dairy products and ready-to-eat meat and fish products. The bacteria have been found in a variety of raw foods, as well as unpasteurized milk.
They are destroyed by cooking, but can grow at refrigeration temperatures. The symptoms of infection include fever, muscle aches, and sometimes nausea or diarrhoea.If infection spreads to the nervous system, headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance and convulsions may occur.
In otherwise healthy individuals, infection is usually mild. However, in pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, or infection of the newborn. People with a damaged immune system and the elderly are also at increased risk of more severe disease. The disease has a high fatality rate in the susceptible population.
They are destroyed by cooking, but can grow at refrigeration temperatures. The symptoms of infection include fever, muscle aches, and sometimes nausea or diarrhoea.If infection spreads to the nervous system, headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance and convulsions may occur.
In otherwise healthy individuals, infection is usually mild. However, in pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, or infection of the newborn. People with a damaged immune system and the elderly are also at increased risk of more severe disease. The disease has a high fatality rate in the susceptible population.
Intellectual property
This page provides links to descriptions of activities, reports, news and events, as well as contacts and cooperating partners in the various WHO programmes and offices working on this topic. Also shown are links to related web sites and topics.
Intellectual property is a form of new knowledge or a creation which is protected by various kind of intellectual property right (IPR). IPRs are rights awarded to inventors or creators which allow them to prevent others from making unauthorized use of their property.
They include patents and copyright, which offer protection for limited periods. In the context of public health, patents are the most important IPR.
Patents provide the inventor with the right to prevent others from making, selling, distributing, importing or using their invention, generally for a period of 20 years. To obtain a patent the inventor must also disclose the knowledge on which the invention is based.
The temporary exclusion of direct competition provides an incentive for invention and innovation by allowing producers of a new medicine to set prices at a level necessary to recoup the costs of their research and development expenditure and make a return on their investment.
Intellectual property is a form of new knowledge or a creation which is protected by various kind of intellectual property right (IPR). IPRs are rights awarded to inventors or creators which allow them to prevent others from making unauthorized use of their property.
They include patents and copyright, which offer protection for limited periods. In the context of public health, patents are the most important IPR.
Patents provide the inventor with the right to prevent others from making, selling, distributing, importing or using their invention, generally for a period of 20 years. To obtain a patent the inventor must also disclose the knowledge on which the invention is based.
The temporary exclusion of direct competition provides an incentive for invention and innovation by allowing producers of a new medicine to set prices at a level necessary to recoup the costs of their research and development expenditure and make a return on their investment.
Dracunculiasis
Dracunculiasis is infection with Dracunculus medinensis, a nematode worm. It is caused by drinking water containing water fleas (Cyclops species) that have ingested Dracunculus larvae.
In the human body, the larvae are released and migrate through the intestinal wall into body tissues, where they develop into adult worms.
The female worms move through the person’s subcutaneous tissue, causing intense pain, and eventually emerge through the skin, usually at the feet, producing oedema, a blister and eventually an ulcer, accompanied by fever, nausea, and vomiting.
If they come into contact with water as they are emerging, the female worms discharge their larvae, setting in motion a new life cycle. There are no drugs available for the treatment of this disease. However, it can be prevented by protecting water sources and filtering potentially contaminated water
In the human body, the larvae are released and migrate through the intestinal wall into body tissues, where they develop into adult worms.
The female worms move through the person’s subcutaneous tissue, causing intense pain, and eventually emerge through the skin, usually at the feet, producing oedema, a blister and eventually an ulcer, accompanied by fever, nausea, and vomiting.
If they come into contact with water as they are emerging, the female worms discharge their larvae, setting in motion a new life cycle. There are no drugs available for the treatment of this disease. However, it can be prevented by protecting water sources and filtering potentially contaminated water
Essential Medicines
This page provides links to descriptions of activities, reports, news and events, as well as contacts and cooperating partners in the various WHO programmes and offices working on this topic. Also shown are links to related web sites and topics.
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population.
They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness.
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the population.
They are selected with due regard to public health relevance, evidence on efficacy and safety, and comparative cost-effectiveness.
Essential medicines are intended to be available within the context of functioning health systems at all times in adequate amounts, in the appropriate dosage forms, with assured quality and adequate information, and at a price the individual and the community can afford.
The implementation of the concept of essential medicines is intended to be flexible and adaptable to many different situations; exactly which medicines are regarded as essential remains a national responsibility
Afghanistan
Afghanistan's recent history is a story of war and civil unrest. The Soviet Union invaded in 1979, but was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-Communist mujahidin forces.
The Communist regime in Kabul collapsed in 1992. Fighting that subsequently erupted among the various mujahidin factions eventually helped to spawn the Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsored movement that fought to end the warlordism and civil war that gripped the country.
The Taliban seized Kabul in 1996 and were able to capture most of the country outside of Northern Alliance strongholds primarily in the northeast. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, a US, Allied, and Northern Alliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering Osama BIN LADIN.
In late 2001, a conference in Bonn, Germany, established a process for political reconstruction that ultimately resulted in the adoption of a new constitution and presidential election in 2004. On 9 October 2004, Hamid KARZAI became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. Elections for seats in the new government's legislative body, the National Assembly, were held in September 2005.
The Communist regime in Kabul collapsed in 1992. Fighting that subsequently erupted among the various mujahidin factions eventually helped to spawn the Taliban, a hardline Pakistani-sponsored movement that fought to end the warlordism and civil war that gripped the country.
The Taliban seized Kabul in 1996 and were able to capture most of the country outside of Northern Alliance strongholds primarily in the northeast. Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, a US, Allied, and Northern Alliance military action toppled the Taliban for sheltering Osama BIN LADIN.
In late 2001, a conference in Bonn, Germany, established a process for political reconstruction that ultimately resulted in the adoption of a new constitution and presidential election in 2004. On 9 October 2004, Hamid KARZAI became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. Elections for seats in the new government's legislative body, the National Assembly, were held in September 2005.
Campylobacter
Campylobacter is a genus of bacteria that are a major cause of gastroenteritis throughout the world. Infection occurs mainly following consumption of contaminated undercooked poultry or contaminated water.
The most common symptoms of campylobacter infection include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms usually start 2–5 days after infection, and last for 3–6 days.
Specific treatment is not usually necessary, except to replace electrolytes and water lost through diarrhoea, but antimicrobials may be needed to treat invasive cases and the carrier state.
Severe complications, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, may follow campylobacter infection.
The most common symptoms of campylobacter infection include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, headache, nausea and vomiting. Symptoms usually start 2–5 days after infection, and last for 3–6 days.
Specific treatment is not usually necessary, except to replace electrolytes and water lost through diarrhoea, but antimicrobials may be needed to treat invasive cases and the carrier state.
Severe complications, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome, may follow campylobacter infection.
SCORPION
Scorpions are eight-legged venomous invertebrates belonging to the class Arachnida, and the order Scorpiones. They are related to spiders, mites, ticks, and harvestmen as well as other members of the Arachnida class. They possess an extended body and a segmented, erectile tail ending with the telson (the sting). There are roughly 1,300 species of scorpions worldwide.
The scorpion's body has two parts, a cephalothorax which contains the prosoma, or head; and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is covered by the carapace, a hard bony or chitinous outer covering. The carapace usually suports a pair of median eyes at the top center. Two to five pairs of lateral eyes are found at the front corners of the carapace, though a few cave and montane forest litter-dwelling scorpions are eyeless. Chelicerae, the scorpion's mouthparts, and a pair of pedipalps, or claws used for prey capture and mating complete the head anatomy.
The pedipalps are covered with trichobothria, sensory setae, that sense air-borne vibrationsThe abdomen is made up of the mesosoma, the main body, and the metasoma, the tail. The mesosoma, protected by bony armour, contains the lungs, digestive organs and sexual organs, as well as bearing 4 pairs of walking legs and the pectines. The tips of the legs have small organs that detect vibrations in the ground. The pectines are feathery sensory organs which hang beneath the abdomen and trail on the ground.
They are coated by chemosensors that provide detection of minute chemical signals that are thought to alert the scorpions to the approach of prey and also to be of use in mating behavior. The respiratory structure, known as "book lungs," are spiracles that open into the scorpion's body. The surfaces of the legs, pedipalps, and body are also covered with thicker hairs that are sensitive to direct touch.
The scorpion's body has two parts, a cephalothorax which contains the prosoma, or head; and the abdomen. The cephalothorax is covered by the carapace, a hard bony or chitinous outer covering. The carapace usually suports a pair of median eyes at the top center. Two to five pairs of lateral eyes are found at the front corners of the carapace, though a few cave and montane forest litter-dwelling scorpions are eyeless. Chelicerae, the scorpion's mouthparts, and a pair of pedipalps, or claws used for prey capture and mating complete the head anatomy.
The pedipalps are covered with trichobothria, sensory setae, that sense air-borne vibrationsThe abdomen is made up of the mesosoma, the main body, and the metasoma, the tail. The mesosoma, protected by bony armour, contains the lungs, digestive organs and sexual organs, as well as bearing 4 pairs of walking legs and the pectines. The tips of the legs have small organs that detect vibrations in the ground. The pectines are feathery sensory organs which hang beneath the abdomen and trail on the ground.
They are coated by chemosensors that provide detection of minute chemical signals that are thought to alert the scorpions to the approach of prey and also to be of use in mating behavior. The respiratory structure, known as "book lungs," are spiracles that open into the scorpion's body. The surfaces of the legs, pedipalps, and body are also covered with thicker hairs that are sensitive to direct touch.
TIGER
The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is also known by several other names, with the commonest of these being the Siberian. The terms Manchurian and Northeast China tiger are also in usage, Manchuria being part of this tiger's former range. The name 'Siberian' tiger came about because this subspecies was originally found across much of Siberia. Its territory is now so reduced that this tiger is almost entirely restricted to a small area in eastern Russia.
Around 20 are left in the Mount Changbai area of northeast China and a handful in the extreme northern regions of North Korea. Increasingly the tigers of these countries are being considered as one population and it is known they cross the borders from one country to another. This happened in 1984 with a tigress which is now in captivity in China.
Due to the fact that the Amur River runs directly through their Russian habitat the common name of the Siberian tiger has changed to reflect their modern-day status and this subspecies is now usually referred to as the Amur tiger.Their Russian stronghold is considered to be Ussuriland, specifically the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, which they share with brown bear, Asiatic black bear, leopard, wolf and lynx.The habitat of Amur tigers ranges from tundra, to humid forests, to coniferous bush-covered mountains up to 6,600 feet.
They occupy the largest tract of contiguous forest remaining on earth. Apart from the rarity of the tigers, this in itself is of conservational significance as the area is the most biological diverse in Russia Wild Amur tigers are thought to have experienced a 1940 all-time low of approximately 50 cats in Russia and an unknown number in China, but this could have been as high as 100 at the time. Though the Russian figure is often quoted as 24 tigers it's very unlikely numbers ever plumbed those depths
Around 20 are left in the Mount Changbai area of northeast China and a handful in the extreme northern regions of North Korea. Increasingly the tigers of these countries are being considered as one population and it is known they cross the borders from one country to another. This happened in 1984 with a tigress which is now in captivity in China.
Due to the fact that the Amur River runs directly through their Russian habitat the common name of the Siberian tiger has changed to reflect their modern-day status and this subspecies is now usually referred to as the Amur tiger.Their Russian stronghold is considered to be Ussuriland, specifically the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, which they share with brown bear, Asiatic black bear, leopard, wolf and lynx.The habitat of Amur tigers ranges from tundra, to humid forests, to coniferous bush-covered mountains up to 6,600 feet.
They occupy the largest tract of contiguous forest remaining on earth. Apart from the rarity of the tigers, this in itself is of conservational significance as the area is the most biological diverse in Russia Wild Amur tigers are thought to have experienced a 1940 all-time low of approximately 50 cats in Russia and an unknown number in China, but this could have been as high as 100 at the time. Though the Russian figure is often quoted as 24 tigers it's very unlikely numbers ever plumbed those depths
TIGER
The Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) is also known by several other names, with the commonest of these being the Siberian. The terms Manchurian and Northeast China tiger are also in usage, Manchuria being part of this tiger's former range. The name 'Siberian' tiger came about because this subspecies was originally found across much of Siberia. Its territory is now so reduced that this tiger is almost entirely restricted to a small area in eastern Russia.
Around 20 are left in the Mount Changbai area of northeast China and a handful in the extreme northern regions of North Korea. Increasingly the tigers of these countries are being considered as one population and it is known they cross the borders from one country to another. This happened in 1984 with a tigress which is now in captivity in China.
Due to the fact that the Amur River runs directly through their Russian habitat the common name of the Siberian tiger has changed to reflect their modern-day status and this subspecies is now usually referred to as the Amur tiger.Their Russian stronghold is considered to be Ussuriland, specifically the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, which they share with brown bear, Asiatic black bear, leopard, wolf and lynx.The habitat of Amur tigers ranges from tundra, to humid forests, to coniferous bush-covered mountains up to 6,600 feet.
They occupy the largest tract of contiguous forest remaining on earth. Apart from the rarity of the tigers, this in itself is of conservational significance as the area is the most biological diverse in Russia Wild Amur tigers are thought to have experienced a 1940 all-time low of approximately 50 cats in Russia and an unknown number in China, but this could have been as high as 100 at the time. Though the Russian figure is often quoted as 24 tigers it's very unlikely numbers ever plumbed those depths
Around 20 are left in the Mount Changbai area of northeast China and a handful in the extreme northern regions of North Korea. Increasingly the tigers of these countries are being considered as one population and it is known they cross the borders from one country to another. This happened in 1984 with a tigress which is now in captivity in China.
Due to the fact that the Amur River runs directly through their Russian habitat the common name of the Siberian tiger has changed to reflect their modern-day status and this subspecies is now usually referred to as the Amur tiger.Their Russian stronghold is considered to be Ussuriland, specifically the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, which they share with brown bear, Asiatic black bear, leopard, wolf and lynx.The habitat of Amur tigers ranges from tundra, to humid forests, to coniferous bush-covered mountains up to 6,600 feet.
They occupy the largest tract of contiguous forest remaining on earth. Apart from the rarity of the tigers, this in itself is of conservational significance as the area is the most biological diverse in Russia Wild Amur tigers are thought to have experienced a 1940 all-time low of approximately 50 cats in Russia and an unknown number in China, but this could have been as high as 100 at the time. Though the Russian figure is often quoted as 24 tigers it's very unlikely numbers ever plumbed those depths
Saiga antelope
The coat is composed of a wooly underlayer and a coarse set of bristly hairs which protect the saiga antelope from the elements. The cinnamon-buff summer coat is comparatively sparse compared to the virtually white winter coat, which may be up to twice as long and 70 percent thicker. The underparts, including the underside of the tail, are always light. There is a small mane on the underside of the neck. Only one word can describe the face of the saiga - bulging. The most notable feature is the inflatable, humped nose which looks similar to that of tapirs or dik-diks.
This fleshy proboscis has a wide range of mobility and a unique internal structure, with convoluted bones, and numerous hairs and mucous-secreting glands. The large nose is functional throughout the year, filtering out airborne dust during the summer migrations and heating the air before it reaches the lungs during the icy winters. The eyes of the saiga, when viewed from straight on, appear to stand out on small, bony protrusions. The thick body is supported by spindly legs. Males alone bear the semi-translucent, wax-coloured horns which grow 20-25 cm / 8-10 inches long. Almost vertical, the slightly lyrate horns are ringed on their lower two-thirds.
The saiga antelope is active mostly during the day, although it may rest at midday. A nomadic species, saiga have no fixed home ranges and usually walk several dozen kilometers in a given day. The saiga is an extremely good runner, and is able to reach speeds up to 80 kmph / 48 mph. Populations undertake seasonal migrations, moving north in the spring to the summer grazing grounds, and returning southward in the fall. Covering 80-120 km / 48-72 miles per day, saiga march with their heads low to the ground, with their specialized noses filtering out the stirred up dust from the air. The rut begins in the wintering grounds, with mature males becoming territorial and attempting to gather a harem of females. Fierce fights break out among rival males, which often result in death. Due to the extreme demands of the rut, during severe winters sexually mature males have a high likelihood of dying - up to 97% will not survive.
At the end of April, surviving males start off the seasonal spring migration, forming herds of 10-2,000 animals and setting out northwards. In the meantime, females wander in huge herds to a suitable birthing ground, where they all drop their calves within about a week of each other. Just 8-10 days after the peak in births, the females and new babies set off after the males, in congregations exceeding 100,000 animals. Once the migration is finished, the streams of animals break up and disperse in smaller herds. The large groups reform in the autumn, and the saiga move en masse back south. A timid species, the saiga can be easily startled, causing immediate flight, even in the huge migrating herds. While the sense of hearing is poorly developed in the saiga, their sense of sight is acute and they are able to see danger up to a kilometer / 0.6 miles away. Under favourable conditions, saiga will visit a water hole twice every day
This fleshy proboscis has a wide range of mobility and a unique internal structure, with convoluted bones, and numerous hairs and mucous-secreting glands. The large nose is functional throughout the year, filtering out airborne dust during the summer migrations and heating the air before it reaches the lungs during the icy winters. The eyes of the saiga, when viewed from straight on, appear to stand out on small, bony protrusions. The thick body is supported by spindly legs. Males alone bear the semi-translucent, wax-coloured horns which grow 20-25 cm / 8-10 inches long. Almost vertical, the slightly lyrate horns are ringed on their lower two-thirds.
The saiga antelope is active mostly during the day, although it may rest at midday. A nomadic species, saiga have no fixed home ranges and usually walk several dozen kilometers in a given day. The saiga is an extremely good runner, and is able to reach speeds up to 80 kmph / 48 mph. Populations undertake seasonal migrations, moving north in the spring to the summer grazing grounds, and returning southward in the fall. Covering 80-120 km / 48-72 miles per day, saiga march with their heads low to the ground, with their specialized noses filtering out the stirred up dust from the air. The rut begins in the wintering grounds, with mature males becoming territorial and attempting to gather a harem of females. Fierce fights break out among rival males, which often result in death. Due to the extreme demands of the rut, during severe winters sexually mature males have a high likelihood of dying - up to 97% will not survive.
At the end of April, surviving males start off the seasonal spring migration, forming herds of 10-2,000 animals and setting out northwards. In the meantime, females wander in huge herds to a suitable birthing ground, where they all drop their calves within about a week of each other. Just 8-10 days after the peak in births, the females and new babies set off after the males, in congregations exceeding 100,000 animals. Once the migration is finished, the streams of animals break up and disperse in smaller herds. The large groups reform in the autumn, and the saiga move en masse back south. A timid species, the saiga can be easily startled, causing immediate flight, even in the huge migrating herds. While the sense of hearing is poorly developed in the saiga, their sense of sight is acute and they are able to see danger up to a kilometer / 0.6 miles away. Under favourable conditions, saiga will visit a water hole twice every day
MILLIPIDIES
Millipedes are relatively common litter and soil animals that occur in most parts of the world. The word 'milli' is latin for a thousand and 'pede' is for foot so a millipede ought to be a thousand footed animal. However whoever coined the name was guessing because although some millipedes have a lot of legs, none actually have a thousand.
In fact the record holder is Illacme plenipes which has an amazing 750 legs or 350 pairs. Most millipedes have far less than this though, normally 100 to 300. Millipedes are distinguished from all other Myriapods because they have two pairs of legs per body segment. This is because each segment is actually two segments fused together
.
These special segments are called 'Diplosegments' . Millipedes use their legs to push themselves into the soil, leaf litter or rotting wood, and the more legs you have the more you can push so it makes sense to have plenty of legs. Millipedes do not really need that many body segments though so the fusing of two segments into one functional unit whilst maintaining both pairs of legs allows millipedes to generate a lot of push without becoming impossibly long.
Though it is not visually obvious millipedes do have a what is called a thorax and an abdomen. The thoracic segments are the 1st 3 body segments, the rest are the abdominal segments. The 1st thoracic segment is apodous (without legs) and the 2nd and 3rd have only one pair of legs each. In all Millipedes except the Colobgnatha the anterior (front) pair of legs on the 4th body segment is also missing, hence if you want to know how many legs a millipede has you can count the number of body segments, multiply by 4 and subtract 10 unless it is a member of the colobgnatha in which case you only substract 8.
In fact the record holder is Illacme plenipes which has an amazing 750 legs or 350 pairs. Most millipedes have far less than this though, normally 100 to 300. Millipedes are distinguished from all other Myriapods because they have two pairs of legs per body segment. This is because each segment is actually two segments fused together
.
These special segments are called 'Diplosegments' . Millipedes use their legs to push themselves into the soil, leaf litter or rotting wood, and the more legs you have the more you can push so it makes sense to have plenty of legs. Millipedes do not really need that many body segments though so the fusing of two segments into one functional unit whilst maintaining both pairs of legs allows millipedes to generate a lot of push without becoming impossibly long.
Though it is not visually obvious millipedes do have a what is called a thorax and an abdomen. The thoracic segments are the 1st 3 body segments, the rest are the abdominal segments. The 1st thoracic segment is apodous (without legs) and the 2nd and 3rd have only one pair of legs each. In all Millipedes except the Colobgnatha the anterior (front) pair of legs on the 4th body segment is also missing, hence if you want to know how many legs a millipede has you can count the number of body segments, multiply by 4 and subtract 10 unless it is a member of the colobgnatha in which case you only substract 8.
LEMON SHARK
The lemon shark's back is deep yellow (giving it its name); its belly is off-white. It is used extensively in scientific research since it does well in captivity. It is requiem shark that is fairly common along the southeast coast of the USA. The triangular teeth are slightly curved.
These long, thin, sharp teeth are designed to catch slippery fish, the mainstay of the lemon shark's diet. A young lemon shark loses an entire set of teeth, one at a time, every 7-8 days. The teeth are located in rows which rotate into use as needed. The first two rows are used in obtaining prey, the other rows rotate into place as they are needed.
As teeth are lost, broken, or worn down, they are replaced by new teeth that rotate into place. Lemon sharks average 8-10 feet (2.45-3.1 m) long. The largest recorded catch was 12 feet long. It eats mostly fish (including other sharks), but will also eats mollusks and crustaceans. Lemon sharks have been known to attack people.
It lives near the surface and at moderate depths, frequenting bays, docks, and river mouths. The lemon shark is found in the Pacific off Latin and South America, in the Atlantic off the coasts of South America and west Africa, and in the Gulf of Mexico
These long, thin, sharp teeth are designed to catch slippery fish, the mainstay of the lemon shark's diet. A young lemon shark loses an entire set of teeth, one at a time, every 7-8 days. The teeth are located in rows which rotate into use as needed. The first two rows are used in obtaining prey, the other rows rotate into place as they are needed.
As teeth are lost, broken, or worn down, they are replaced by new teeth that rotate into place. Lemon sharks average 8-10 feet (2.45-3.1 m) long. The largest recorded catch was 12 feet long. It eats mostly fish (including other sharks), but will also eats mollusks and crustaceans. Lemon sharks have been known to attack people.
It lives near the surface and at moderate depths, frequenting bays, docks, and river mouths. The lemon shark is found in the Pacific off Latin and South America, in the Atlantic off the coasts of South America and west Africa, and in the Gulf of Mexico
ANGELSHARK
The Angelsharks are flat-bodied sharks, very ray-like. They bury themselves in the sand or mud with only the eyes and part of the top of the body exposed. They have a blunt snout and are camouflaged to blend into the sand and rocks of the ocean bed. They have long, wide fins that look like wings, giving it its name.
It is also known as the monk shark, sand devil, and monkfish. Angelsharks are frequently caught for food Angelsharks have small, sharp teeth in trap-like jaws. The various species of Angelsharks range in size up to 6.5 feet (2 m) long. The Pacific Angelshark is up to 5 feet (1.5 m) long. Angelsharks eat fish, crustaceans, and mollusks.
They spend the day hidden in the sand and rocks of the ocean bed. As fish swim by, the angelshark bursts up and surprises the prey, catching it in its trap-like jaws. Angelsharks are bottom dwellers that live on ocean floors of depths from 10 to 4,300 feet (3 to 1300 m).
They live in warm temperate oceans in the southern hemisphere Pacific angelsharks are found in the eastern Pacific Ocean , from southern Alaska, USA to Baja, CA, USA and from Ecuador to southern Chile Angelsharks reproduce via aplacental viviparity with litters of 8-13 live-born pups. In aplacental viviparity, the eggs hatch and the babies develop inside the female's body but there is no placenta to nourish the pups.
It is also known as the monk shark, sand devil, and monkfish. Angelsharks are frequently caught for food Angelsharks have small, sharp teeth in trap-like jaws. The various species of Angelsharks range in size up to 6.5 feet (2 m) long. The Pacific Angelshark is up to 5 feet (1.5 m) long. Angelsharks eat fish, crustaceans, and mollusks.
They spend the day hidden in the sand and rocks of the ocean bed. As fish swim by, the angelshark bursts up and surprises the prey, catching it in its trap-like jaws. Angelsharks are bottom dwellers that live on ocean floors of depths from 10 to 4,300 feet (3 to 1300 m).
They live in warm temperate oceans in the southern hemisphere Pacific angelsharks are found in the eastern Pacific Ocean , from southern Alaska, USA to Baja, CA, USA and from Ecuador to southern Chile Angelsharks reproduce via aplacental viviparity with litters of 8-13 live-born pups. In aplacental viviparity, the eggs hatch and the babies develop inside the female's body but there is no placenta to nourish the pups.
LOBSTERS
Lobsters include large crustaceans from two groups, one with a pair of large claws and the other without. Clawed lobsters, yabbies and freshwater crayfish, live only in rivers and lakes in Australia but in the northern hemisphere there are marine representatives too. Marine lobsters, some of which are also called crayfish in Australia, do not have claws and are the ones figured here.
The carapace is calcareous and tough, reinforced to protect the internal organs of the head and thorax and the gills at the bases of the legs. The antennae are obvious, the compound eyes are on mobile stalks, there are six pairs of small limbs around the mouth, and five pairs of walking legs. The abdomen is strong and muscular, with a strong segmented exoskeleton on the back. It has the swimmerets underneath and ends in a tail fan.
During mating the male lobster transfers a packet of sperm to the female where it sticks and appears as a “tar spot” between the last legs. The eggs are laid through holes at the bases of the third pairs of legs and are attached to hairs on the swimmerets where the embryos develop until they hatch. As many as 600 000 eggs may be carried by a large adult female.
The eggs of Australian marine lobsters hatch as a larva called a phyllosoma. The translucent flat phyllosoma lives in the plankton for up to 22 months. In the Western Australian species of rock lobster the phyllosoma passes through nine instars lasting 9-11 months and is transported by currents well into the Indian Ocean before moulting to a stage looking much like a translucent miniature adult. This stage swims across the continental shelf to settle in shallow inshore reef areas.
The carapace is calcareous and tough, reinforced to protect the internal organs of the head and thorax and the gills at the bases of the legs. The antennae are obvious, the compound eyes are on mobile stalks, there are six pairs of small limbs around the mouth, and five pairs of walking legs. The abdomen is strong and muscular, with a strong segmented exoskeleton on the back. It has the swimmerets underneath and ends in a tail fan.
During mating the male lobster transfers a packet of sperm to the female where it sticks and appears as a “tar spot” between the last legs. The eggs are laid through holes at the bases of the third pairs of legs and are attached to hairs on the swimmerets where the embryos develop until they hatch. As many as 600 000 eggs may be carried by a large adult female.
The eggs of Australian marine lobsters hatch as a larva called a phyllosoma. The translucent flat phyllosoma lives in the plankton for up to 22 months. In the Western Australian species of rock lobster the phyllosoma passes through nine instars lasting 9-11 months and is transported by currents well into the Indian Ocean before moulting to a stage looking much like a translucent miniature adult. This stage swims across the continental shelf to settle in shallow inshore reef areas.
Lungfish
The Australian Lungfish has a long, heavy body with large scales. It has small eyes and paddle-like pectoral fins and pelvic fins. Its dorsal fin starts midway along the back and is continuous with the caudal and anal fins.
This species is usually olive-green to brown on the back and sides with some scattered dark blotches, and whitish ventrally.
It grows to about 1.5 m in length and over 40 kg. The Shedd Aquarium's Australian Lungfish, affectionately known as 'Granddad' (see top image) is over 80 years old, and is possibly the oldest fish in captivity.
The Australian Lungfish has a single lung, whereas all other species of lungfishes have paired lungs. During dry periods when streams become stagnant, or when water quality changes, lungfishes have the ability to surface and breathe air. When the Australian Lungfish surfaces to empty and refill its lung the sound is reportedly like that of the "blast from a small bellows". Under most conditions, this species breathes exclusively using its gills.
Food items include mainly frogs, tadpoles, small fishes, snails, shrimp and earthworms. It will also eat plant material. The eyesight of the Australian Lungfish has been reported to be poor and the location of prey was thought to be based on the sense of smell rather than sight. The recent work of Watt et al has shown that the Australian Lungfish can use electroreception to locate hidden prey. Their research on the anatomy of this species has shown the presence of organs similar to those used for the detection of electric signals in other fishes, such as sharks.
The Australian Lungfish is normally found in still or slow flowing pools in river systems of south-eastern Queensland. It occurs naturally in the Burnett and Mary River systems although has been introduced into other rivers and reservoirs in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
This species is usually olive-green to brown on the back and sides with some scattered dark blotches, and whitish ventrally.
It grows to about 1.5 m in length and over 40 kg. The Shedd Aquarium's Australian Lungfish, affectionately known as 'Granddad' (see top image) is over 80 years old, and is possibly the oldest fish in captivity.
The Australian Lungfish has a single lung, whereas all other species of lungfishes have paired lungs. During dry periods when streams become stagnant, or when water quality changes, lungfishes have the ability to surface and breathe air. When the Australian Lungfish surfaces to empty and refill its lung the sound is reportedly like that of the "blast from a small bellows". Under most conditions, this species breathes exclusively using its gills.
Food items include mainly frogs, tadpoles, small fishes, snails, shrimp and earthworms. It will also eat plant material. The eyesight of the Australian Lungfish has been reported to be poor and the location of prey was thought to be based on the sense of smell rather than sight. The recent work of Watt et al has shown that the Australian Lungfish can use electroreception to locate hidden prey. Their research on the anatomy of this species has shown the presence of organs similar to those used for the detection of electric signals in other fishes, such as sharks.
The Australian Lungfish is normally found in still or slow flowing pools in river systems of south-eastern Queensland. It occurs naturally in the Burnett and Mary River systems although has been introduced into other rivers and reservoirs in south-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales.
Clouded Leopard
The Clouded Leopard Project is dedicated to the conservation of clouded leopards and the habitat upon which they depend by supporting field research, implementing education initiatives in range countries, and bringing global awareness to clouded leopard conservation issues. We invite you to learn about this amazing, endangered cat and help spread the word about its conservation needs. You can support clouded leopard conservation by making a donation or by purchasing from our online store. The Clouded Leopard Project website serves as the official website of the Association of Zoos and Aquarium's Clouded Leopard Species Survival Plan.
We invite you to learn more about Clouded Leopard Project activities. Listen to the first hand account of volunteer Isabel Walsh's encounter with a wild clouded leopard in December 2006. Learn about the Thailand Breeding Project through this
We invite you to learn more about Clouded Leopard Project activities. Listen to the first hand account of volunteer Isabel Walsh's encounter with a wild clouded leopard in December 2006. Learn about the Thailand Breeding Project through this
Leopard Seal
Leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) are one of the most awesome marine predators and the only seal to regularly prey on warm-blooded animals such as penguins, birds and other seals. Female leopard seals are actually larger than males and can reach 600 kg and 3.6 m in length. Leopard seals are more slender than elephant seals, having a long streamlined body, constricted neck and a massive lizard-like head.
They are coloured grey above and light grey below with dark spots (hence the name 'leopard' seal). Although both the elephant and leopard seal breed far to the south of Tasmania, individuals are seen in our waters and may come ashore to rest. Usually people assume the seal is sick or injured, however, often the seal is just resting and will head south after they have concluded their rest.
Leopard seals breed on the Antarctic pack ice and range from the Antarctic coast to the sub-antarctic and sub-tropical seas. An average of five leopard seals visit the coast of Tasmania each year, but up to 18 have been sighted in one year (1990). In 1999, four leopard seals were reported. 'Scats' or faeces have been collected from leopard seals that haul out in Tasmania and studies indicate that whilst in Tasmanian waters the seals are preying upon shearwaters,
cormorants and little penguins as well as cephalopods and fish and have specialised tri cusp teeth to eat krill. It is important for your own safety not to disturb the animal. It is recommended that observers keep a 10 metre distance from animal. See our guidelines for observing seals in the wild for further information.
It is important for your own safety not to disturb the animal. It is recommended that observers keep a 10 metre distance from animal. See our guidelines for observind seals in the wild for further information.
They are coloured grey above and light grey below with dark spots (hence the name 'leopard' seal). Although both the elephant and leopard seal breed far to the south of Tasmania, individuals are seen in our waters and may come ashore to rest. Usually people assume the seal is sick or injured, however, often the seal is just resting and will head south after they have concluded their rest.
Leopard seals breed on the Antarctic pack ice and range from the Antarctic coast to the sub-antarctic and sub-tropical seas. An average of five leopard seals visit the coast of Tasmania each year, but up to 18 have been sighted in one year (1990). In 1999, four leopard seals were reported. 'Scats' or faeces have been collected from leopard seals that haul out in Tasmania and studies indicate that whilst in Tasmanian waters the seals are preying upon shearwaters,
cormorants and little penguins as well as cephalopods and fish and have specialised tri cusp teeth to eat krill. It is important for your own safety not to disturb the animal. It is recommended that observers keep a 10 metre distance from animal. See our guidelines for observing seals in the wild for further information.
It is important for your own safety not to disturb the animal. It is recommended that observers keep a 10 metre distance from animal. See our guidelines for observind seals in the wild for further information.
Lion
The lion (Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four big cats in the genus Panthera. With some males exceeding 250 kg (550 lb) in weight, it is the second-largest living cat after the tiger. Wild lions currently exist in Sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia with a critically endangered remnant population in northwest India, having disappeared from North Africa, the Middle East, and Western Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene (about 10,000 years ago), the lion was the most widespread large land mammal beside humans.
They were found in most of Africa, much of Eurasia from western Europe to India and, in the Americas, from the Yukon to Peru Should they survive the rigors of cubhood, lionesses in secure habitat such as Kruger National Park may frequently reach an age of 12–14 years whereas lions seldom live for longer than 8 years.However, there are records of lionesses living for up to 20 years in the wild.
In captivity both male and female lions can live for over years. They typically inhabit savanna and grassland, although they may take to bush and forest. Lions are unusually social compared to other cats. A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males. Groups of female lions typically hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates.
The lion is an apex and keystone predater, although they will resort to scavenging if the opportunity arises. While lions, in general, do not selectively hunt humans, some have been known to become man-eaters and seek human prey. The lion is a vulnerable species, having seen a possibly irreversible population decline of 30 to 50 percent over the past two decades in its African range
They were found in most of Africa, much of Eurasia from western Europe to India and, in the Americas, from the Yukon to Peru Should they survive the rigors of cubhood, lionesses in secure habitat such as Kruger National Park may frequently reach an age of 12–14 years whereas lions seldom live for longer than 8 years.However, there are records of lionesses living for up to 20 years in the wild.
In captivity both male and female lions can live for over years. They typically inhabit savanna and grassland, although they may take to bush and forest. Lions are unusually social compared to other cats. A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males. Groups of female lions typically hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates.
The lion is an apex and keystone predater, although they will resort to scavenging if the opportunity arises. While lions, in general, do not selectively hunt humans, some have been known to become man-eaters and seek human prey. The lion is a vulnerable species, having seen a possibly irreversible population decline of 30 to 50 percent over the past two decades in its African range
Migration
Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures, therefore optimisin availability of food sources and breeding habitat. These migrations vary among the different groups. Many landbirds, shorebirds, and waterbirds undertake annual long distance migrations, usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions.
These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or arctic/antarctic regions and a non-breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling.
Landbirds have a flight range of around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi), although the Bar-tailed Godwit is capable of non-stop flights of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Seabirds also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of Sooty Shearwaters.
which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi). Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food.
These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or arctic/antarctic regions and a non-breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere. Before migration, birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs. Migration is highly demanding energetically, particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling.
Landbirds have a flight range of around 2,500 km (1,600 mi) and shorebirds can fly up to 4,000 km (2,500 mi), although the Bar-tailed Godwit is capable of non-stop flights of up to 10,200 km (6,300 mi). Seabirds also undertake long migrations, the longest annual migration being those of Sooty Shearwaters.
which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (39,800 mi). Other seabirds disperse after breeding, travelling widely but having no set migration route. Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons Some bird species undertake shorter migrations, travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food.
Bird
class Aves) are winged, bipedal, endothermic (warm-blooded), vertebrate animals that lay eggs. There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most numerous tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Birds range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) Bee Hummingbird to the 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) Ostrich. The fossil record indicates that birds evolved from theropod dinosaurs during the Jurassic period, around 150–200 Ma (million years ago), and the earliest known bird is the Late Jurassic Archaeopterex, c 155–150 Ma. Most paleontologists regard birds as the only clade of dinosaurs that survived the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event approximately 65.5 Ma.
Modern birds are characterised by feathers, a beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All birds have forelimbs modified as wings and most can fly, with some exceptions including ratites, penguins, and a number of diverse endemic island species. Birds also have unique digestive and respiratory systems that are highly adapted for flight. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animal species; a number of bird species have been observed manufacturing and using tools, and many social species exhibit cultural transmission of knowledge across generations.
Many species undertake long distance annual migrations, and many more perform shorter irregular movements. Birds are social; they communicate using visual signals and through calls and songs, and participate in social behaviours including cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators.
The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous ("many females") or, rarely, polyandrous ("many males"). Eggs are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching
Modern birds are characterised by feathers, a beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a lightweight but strong skeleton. All birds have forelimbs modified as wings and most can fly, with some exceptions including ratites, penguins, and a number of diverse endemic island species. Birds also have unique digestive and respiratory systems that are highly adapted for flight. Some birds, especially corvids and parrots, are among the most intelligent animal species; a number of bird species have been observed manufacturing and using tools, and many social species exhibit cultural transmission of knowledge across generations.
Many species undertake long distance annual migrations, and many more perform shorter irregular movements. Birds are social; they communicate using visual signals and through calls and songs, and participate in social behaviours including cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators.
The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous ("many females") or, rarely, polyandrous ("many males"). Eggs are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching
Women, Infants and Children (WIC) Overseas
The Department of Defense (DoD) offers the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) Overseas Program to eligible participants living overseas. The WIC Overseas Program provides you and your family with several important benefits WIC Overseas counselors determine eligibility for the program by evaluating income, family size, and certain other criteria Once you or a family member is certified by a WIC Overseas counselor, you or the family member can enroll in the program.
Your WIC Overseas counselor will determine how long you can participate in the program. Those who may be eligible for the WIC Overseas Program includeThe WIC Overseas Program is designed to supplement the food you regularly buy with additional nutritional food items. WIC Overseas Program staff will provide ideas for meal planning, food preparation, and recipes that are nutritious, delicious, and easy to prepare.
Your counselor will give you an approved food list and redeemable food checks called "drafts," which you exchange for specific foods and quantities in overseas commissaries and NEXMARTs (drafts are accepted only at these overseas stores)Food items generally available through the WIC Overseas Program includeSubstitutions are not allowed.
If the commissary or NEXMART does not have the item listed on your draft, keep the draft until the item is in stock. However, be aware of the draft's expiration date.In addition to providing nutritious food and healthy meal planning, the WIC Overseas Program offers a nutritional screening for you and your children. This screening may help identify medical conditions early so that you can seek proper medical advice.
Your WIC Overseas counselor will determine how long you can participate in the program. Those who may be eligible for the WIC Overseas Program includeThe WIC Overseas Program is designed to supplement the food you regularly buy with additional nutritional food items. WIC Overseas Program staff will provide ideas for meal planning, food preparation, and recipes that are nutritious, delicious, and easy to prepare.
Your counselor will give you an approved food list and redeemable food checks called "drafts," which you exchange for specific foods and quantities in overseas commissaries and NEXMARTs (drafts are accepted only at these overseas stores)Food items generally available through the WIC Overseas Program includeSubstitutions are not allowed.
If the commissary or NEXMART does not have the item listed on your draft, keep the draft until the item is in stock. However, be aware of the draft's expiration date.In addition to providing nutritious food and healthy meal planning, the WIC Overseas Program offers a nutritional screening for you and your children. This screening may help identify medical conditions early so that you can seek proper medical advice.
Nutrition
The Nutrition Services Standards are designed to help State and local WIC agencies self-assess how well they currently deliver a wide range of nutrition services and how to improve the delivery and quality of nutrition services.
The Standards represent a wide range of performance practices used to deliver quality WIC nutrition services and are flexible enough to be used in the many types of agencies that administer the WIC Program.
The Nutrition Services Standards were developed through a joint effort between FNS, the National WIC Association and State WIC Nutrition Coordinators and Program Directors. The final document is the product of this collaborative and inclusive process
Inspire the revitalization of quality nutrition services in WICIdentify Federal requirements related to quality nutrition services Document "Federal requirements," "Recommended Criteria," and "Best Practices" achieved Assess the delivery of quality nutrition services to participants Identify areas needing improvement
Determine staff training, technical assistance and resource needs Develop and implement State and local agency policies and procedures Assist in developing State and local agency nutrition services plans Evaluate progress toward strengthening or enhancing nutrition services
The Standards represent a wide range of performance practices used to deliver quality WIC nutrition services and are flexible enough to be used in the many types of agencies that administer the WIC Program.
The Nutrition Services Standards were developed through a joint effort between FNS, the National WIC Association and State WIC Nutrition Coordinators and Program Directors. The final document is the product of this collaborative and inclusive process
Inspire the revitalization of quality nutrition services in WICIdentify Federal requirements related to quality nutrition services Document "Federal requirements," "Recommended Criteria," and "Best Practices" achieved Assess the delivery of quality nutrition services to participants Identify areas needing improvement
Determine staff training, technical assistance and resource needs Develop and implement State and local agency policies and procedures Assist in developing State and local agency nutrition services plans Evaluate progress toward strengthening or enhancing nutrition services
KENYA
Kenya is still the primary focus of all adventure travel in Africa. It is one of the finest--and undoubtedly the most famous--safari destination in the world. Safari, however, is by no means the only reason to visit Kenya, for the attractions of its rich culture and diverse environments are considerable.
Kenya is situated right along the equator, on the eastern coast of the African continent. Its coastal region is on the southeast, and to the east lies Somalia. Ethiopia is to the north, the Sudan to the northwest, and Uganda directly to the west. The southwestern border of the country is marked by Lake Victoria, and southward lies Tanzania.
Kenya's geography is marvelously varied. While much of northeastern Kenya is a flat, bush-covered plain, the remainder of the country encompasses pristine beaches, scenic highlands and lake regions, the Great Rift Valley, and the magnificent Mount Kenya.
Although Kenya's varied environments experience a wide variety of climate conditions, the temperature remains comfortably warm year-round. Much of Kenya experiences heavy rainfall from March through May and, to a lesser extent, from October through December.
The best time for most outdoor acitivities (including safari and mountain climbing) is during the dry season (June-September). Located on Africa's east coast, Kenya straddles the equator with Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, Sudan and Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia and the Indian Ocean to the east.
Kenya is situated right along the equator, on the eastern coast of the African continent. Its coastal region is on the southeast, and to the east lies Somalia. Ethiopia is to the north, the Sudan to the northwest, and Uganda directly to the west. The southwestern border of the country is marked by Lake Victoria, and southward lies Tanzania.
Kenya's geography is marvelously varied. While much of northeastern Kenya is a flat, bush-covered plain, the remainder of the country encompasses pristine beaches, scenic highlands and lake regions, the Great Rift Valley, and the magnificent Mount Kenya.
Although Kenya's varied environments experience a wide variety of climate conditions, the temperature remains comfortably warm year-round. Much of Kenya experiences heavy rainfall from March through May and, to a lesser extent, from October through December.
The best time for most outdoor acitivities (including safari and mountain climbing) is during the dry season (June-September). Located on Africa's east coast, Kenya straddles the equator with Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, Sudan and Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia and the Indian Ocean to the east.
KENYA
Kenya is still the primary focus of all adventure travel in Africa. It is one of the finest--and undoubtedly the most famous--safari destination in the world. Safari, however, is by no means the only reason to visit Kenya, for the attractions of its rich culture and diverse environments are considerable.
Kenya is situated right along the equator, on the eastern coast of the African continent. Its coastal region is on the southeast, and to the east lies Somalia. Ethiopia is to the north, the Sudan to the northwest, and Uganda directly to the west. The southwestern border of the country is marked by Lake Victoria, and southward lies Tanzania.
Kenya's geography is marvelously varied. While much of northeastern Kenya is a flat, bush-covered plain, the remainder of the country encompasses pristine beaches, scenic highlands and lake regions, the Great Rift Valley, and the magnificent Mount Kenya.
Although Kenya's varied environments experience a wide variety of climate conditions, the temperature remains comfortably warm year-round. Much of Kenya experiences heavy rainfall from March through May and, to a lesser extent, from October through December.
The best time for most outdoor acitivities (including safari and mountain climbing) is during the dry season (June-September). Located on Africa's east coast, Kenya straddles the equator with Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, Sudan and Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia and the Indian Ocean to the east.
Kenya is situated right along the equator, on the eastern coast of the African continent. Its coastal region is on the southeast, and to the east lies Somalia. Ethiopia is to the north, the Sudan to the northwest, and Uganda directly to the west. The southwestern border of the country is marked by Lake Victoria, and southward lies Tanzania.
Kenya's geography is marvelously varied. While much of northeastern Kenya is a flat, bush-covered plain, the remainder of the country encompasses pristine beaches, scenic highlands and lake regions, the Great Rift Valley, and the magnificent Mount Kenya.
Although Kenya's varied environments experience a wide variety of climate conditions, the temperature remains comfortably warm year-round. Much of Kenya experiences heavy rainfall from March through May and, to a lesser extent, from October through December.
The best time for most outdoor acitivities (including safari and mountain climbing) is during the dry season (June-September). Located on Africa's east coast, Kenya straddles the equator with Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, Sudan and Ethiopia to the north, and Somalia and the Indian Ocean to the east.
AUSTRALIA
Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean7,686,850 sq kmSlightly smaller than the USNote: includes Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Islandworld's smallest continent but sixth-largest country; population concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts; regular, tropical, invigorating, sea breeze known as "the Doctor" occurs along the west coast in the summer.
Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the highly industrialized West European countries. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy.
The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s, but the economy has expanded at reasonably steady rates in recent years. In addition to high unemployment.
short-term economic problems include a balancing of output growth and inflationary pressures and the stimulation of exports to offset rising imports, especially given the economic crisis in AsiaMachinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum productsCoal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, iron ore, wheat, machinery and transport equipment.
Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the highly industrialized West European countries. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy.
The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s, but the economy has expanded at reasonably steady rates in recent years. In addition to high unemployment.
short-term economic problems include a balancing of output growth and inflationary pressures and the stimulation of exports to offset rising imports, especially given the economic crisis in AsiaMachinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum productsCoal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, iron ore, wheat, machinery and transport equipment.
Arctic
The Arctic is named for the north polar constellation “Arktos”Greek for “bear.” It is 14.5 million square km (5.5 million square miles) most exactly the same size as Antarcticaand has been inhabited by humans for close to 20,000 years. It consists of the ice-covered Arctic Ocean and surrounding land, including all of Greenland and Spitsbergen, and the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, Norway, and Russia.
Its boundary is defined by either the northern limit of stands of trees on land (the treeline), the line of average July temperature of ~10°C (50°F), or the Arctic Circle, an imaginary line of latitude located at 66 degrees 33 minutes North. North of this line, the sun never sets on the summer solstice (June 21st).Some of the land parts of the Arctic, like Greenland, are covered with ice sheets; others, like Alaska, have lush tundra.
These areas have large mammals, such as caribou, bears, wolves and foxes, and a variety of plants. In summer, migratory birds and other wildlife come to the Arctic to raise their young. The size and shape of the Arctic Ocean Basins are roughly similar to those of the Antarctic continent, and is 1.5 times the size of the continental US. The Arctic Ocean seafloor is subdivided by three great parallel mountain ranges, or ridges, between Greenland and Siberia. The Nansen-Gakkel Ridge (Arctic Mid-Ocean It is also very deep, reaching more than 4,000 meters (13,000 feet or 2½ miles) in some areas. It is mostly covered by pack ice (frozen seawater) averaging 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) thick. The ice drifts around the polar basin under the influence of winds and currents. When the floes collide, the ice forms a jagged line of ice chunks known as a pressure ridge
Its boundary is defined by either the northern limit of stands of trees on land (the treeline), the line of average July temperature of ~10°C (50°F), or the Arctic Circle, an imaginary line of latitude located at 66 degrees 33 minutes North. North of this line, the sun never sets on the summer solstice (June 21st).Some of the land parts of the Arctic, like Greenland, are covered with ice sheets; others, like Alaska, have lush tundra.
These areas have large mammals, such as caribou, bears, wolves and foxes, and a variety of plants. In summer, migratory birds and other wildlife come to the Arctic to raise their young. The size and shape of the Arctic Ocean Basins are roughly similar to those of the Antarctic continent, and is 1.5 times the size of the continental US. The Arctic Ocean seafloor is subdivided by three great parallel mountain ranges, or ridges, between Greenland and Siberia. The Nansen-Gakkel Ridge (Arctic Mid-Ocean It is also very deep, reaching more than 4,000 meters (13,000 feet or 2½ miles) in some areas. It is mostly covered by pack ice (frozen seawater) averaging 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) thick. The ice drifts around the polar basin under the influence of winds and currents. When the floes collide, the ice forms a jagged line of ice chunks known as a pressure ridge
SEA SPIDER
Sea spiders" or pycnogonids, are members of Phylum Arthropoda, along with land spiders. Besides living underwater, sea spiders differ from their land cousins in other ways they don't spin webs, and may have from four to six pairs of long segmented legs, versus four pair for land spiders.
more species of sea spider most are very small, ranging from 1/100 inch to about 20 inches across. This one is small, only about 3/8 inch across. The largest sea spiders reside in the deep ocean. Deep-sea researcher Dr. Paul H.
Yancey notes large sea spiders are known to "stride over the abyssal mud with their long legs, using a proboscis to suck tissues from sessile prey..." and has photos of two such specimens on his deep sea pages web site.
At least one species of sea spider is known to feed on nudibranchs and other small gastropods, as noted in this archive page from one of my favorite online resources, the Australian Museum's Sea Slug Forum. Like their land-lubber cousins, sea spiders are carnivorous, some feeding on other invertebrates by sucking out the juices, while others tear their prey apart and pass it into a proboscis for feeding.
more species of sea spider most are very small, ranging from 1/100 inch to about 20 inches across. This one is small, only about 3/8 inch across. The largest sea spiders reside in the deep ocean. Deep-sea researcher Dr. Paul H.
Yancey notes large sea spiders are known to "stride over the abyssal mud with their long legs, using a proboscis to suck tissues from sessile prey..." and has photos of two such specimens on his deep sea pages web site.
At least one species of sea spider is known to feed on nudibranchs and other small gastropods, as noted in this archive page from one of my favorite online resources, the Australian Museum's Sea Slug Forum. Like their land-lubber cousins, sea spiders are carnivorous, some feeding on other invertebrates by sucking out the juices, while others tear their prey apart and pass it into a proboscis for feeding.
TURTILES
The leatherback is the largest turtle and the largest living reptile in the world. Mature males and females can be as long as six and a half feet (2 m) and weigh almost 2000 lbs. (900 kg). The leatherback is the only sea turtle that lacks a hard, bony shell. A leatherback's carapace is approximately 1.5 inches (4 cm) thick and consists of leathery, oil saturated connective tissue overlaying loosely interlocking dermal bones.
The carapace has seven longitudinal ridges and tapers to a blunt point. Adult leatherbacks are primarily black with a pinkish white mottled ventral surface and pale white and pink spotting on the top of the head. The front flippers lack claws and scales and are proportionally longer than in other sea turtles; back flippers are paddle-shaped.
The ridged carapace and large flippers are characteristics that make the leatherback uniquely equipped for long distance foraging migrations. Female leatherbacks lay clutches of approximately 100 eggs on sandy, tropical beaches. Females nest several times during a nesting season, typically at 8-12 day intervals. After 60-65 days, leatherback hatchlings with white striping along the ridges of their backs and on the margins of the flippers emerge from the nest. Leatherback hatchlings are approximately 50-77 cm (2-3 inches) in length, with fore flippers as long as their bodies, and weigh approximately 40-50 grams (1.4-1.8 ounces).
Female leatherbacks lay clutches of approximately 100 eggs on sandy, tropical beaches. Females nest several times during a nesting season, typically at 8-12 day intervals. After 60-65 days, leatherback hatchlings with white striping along the ridges of their backs and on the margins of the flippers emerge from the nest. Leatherback hatchlings are approximately 50-77 cm (2-3 inches) in length, with fore flippers as long as their bodies, and weigh approximately 40-50 grams (1.4-1.8 ounces).
The carapace has seven longitudinal ridges and tapers to a blunt point. Adult leatherbacks are primarily black with a pinkish white mottled ventral surface and pale white and pink spotting on the top of the head. The front flippers lack claws and scales and are proportionally longer than in other sea turtles; back flippers are paddle-shaped.
The ridged carapace and large flippers are characteristics that make the leatherback uniquely equipped for long distance foraging migrations. Female leatherbacks lay clutches of approximately 100 eggs on sandy, tropical beaches. Females nest several times during a nesting season, typically at 8-12 day intervals. After 60-65 days, leatherback hatchlings with white striping along the ridges of their backs and on the margins of the flippers emerge from the nest. Leatherback hatchlings are approximately 50-77 cm (2-3 inches) in length, with fore flippers as long as their bodies, and weigh approximately 40-50 grams (1.4-1.8 ounces).
Female leatherbacks lay clutches of approximately 100 eggs on sandy, tropical beaches. Females nest several times during a nesting season, typically at 8-12 day intervals. After 60-65 days, leatherback hatchlings with white striping along the ridges of their backs and on the margins of the flippers emerge from the nest. Leatherback hatchlings are approximately 50-77 cm (2-3 inches) in length, with fore flippers as long as their bodies, and weigh approximately 40-50 grams (1.4-1.8 ounces).
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
JAPAN
Japan consists of several thousands of islands, of which HonsKyush and Shikokuare the four largest. Japan's closest neighbors are Korea, Russia and China. The Sea of Japan separates the Asian continent from the Japanese archipelago
Japan's area is comparable to that of Germany or California. Japan's northernmost islands are located on a similar geographical latitude as Milan or Portland, while her southernmost islands are on a similar latitude as the Bahamas. More than 50% of the country is mountainous and covered by forests. Japan is politically structured into 8 regions and 47 prefectures
Because Japan is located in a region, where several continental plates meet, the country experiences frequent earthquakes. Please visit the special page about earthquakes. For the same reason, there are many volcanos in Japan. Japan's most famous volcano and highest mountain is Mt.Fuji
Due to the large North South extension of the country, the climate varies strongly in different regions. The climate in most of the major cities, including Tokyo, is temperate to subtropic and consists of four seasons. The winter is mild and the summer is hot and humid. There is a rainyseasonin early summer, and typhoonshit parts of the country every year during late summer. The climate of the northern island of Hokkaido and the Sea of Japan coast is colder, and snow falls in large amounts. In Okinawa, on the other hand, the mean temperature of January is a warm 16 degrees Celsius
Japan's area is comparable to that of Germany or California. Japan's northernmost islands are located on a similar geographical latitude as Milan or Portland, while her southernmost islands are on a similar latitude as the Bahamas. More than 50% of the country is mountainous and covered by forests. Japan is politically structured into 8 regions and 47 prefectures
Because Japan is located in a region, where several continental plates meet, the country experiences frequent earthquakes. Please visit the special page about earthquakes. For the same reason, there are many volcanos in Japan. Japan's most famous volcano and highest mountain is Mt.Fuji
Due to the large North South extension of the country, the climate varies strongly in different regions. The climate in most of the major cities, including Tokyo, is temperate to subtropic and consists of four seasons. The winter is mild and the summer is hot and humid. There is a rainyseasonin early summer, and typhoonshit parts of the country every year during late summer. The climate of the northern island of Hokkaido and the Sea of Japan coast is colder, and snow falls in large amounts. In Okinawa, on the other hand, the mean temperature of January is a warm 16 degrees Celsius
Antarctic
Antarctic Treaty defers claims; sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land) and United Kingdom. The United States and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the U.S. reserves the right to do so). No formal claims have been made in the sector between 90° W and 150° W.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
None presently exploited. Iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
None presently exploited. Iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
medicaltranscription
Arctic
The Arctic is named for the north polar constellation “Arktos”—Greek for “bear.” It is 14.5 million square km (5.5 million square miles)—almost exactly the same size as Antarctica—and has been inhabited by humans for close to 20,000 years. It consists of the ice-covered Arctic Ocean and surrounding land, including all of Greenland and Spitsbergen, and the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, Norway, and Russia.
Its boundary is defined by either the northern limit of stands of trees on land (the treeline), the line of average July temperature of ~10°C (50°F), or the Arctic Circle, an imaginary line of latitude located at 66 degrees 33 minutes North. North of this line, the sun never sets on the summer solstice (June 21st).Some of the land parts of the Arctic, like Greenland, are covered with ice sheets; others, like Alaska, have lush tundra.
These areas have large mammals, such as caribou, bears, wolves and foxes, and a variety of plants. In summer, migratory birds and other wildlife come to the Arctic to raise their young. The size and shape of the Arctic Ocean Basins are roughly similar to those of the Antarctic continent, and is 1.5 times the size of the continental US. The Arctic Ocean seafloor is subdivided by three great parallel mountain ranges, or ridges, between Greenland and Siberia. The Nansen-Gakkel Ridge (Arctic Mid-Ocean It is also very deep, reaching more than 4,000 meters (13,000 feet or 2½ miles) in some areas. It is mostly covered by pack ice (frozen seawater) averaging 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) thick. The ice drifts around the polar basin under the influence of winds and currents. When the floes collide, the ice forms a jagged line of ice chunks known as a pressure ridge
The Arctic is named for the north polar constellation “Arktos”—Greek for “bear.” It is 14.5 million square km (5.5 million square miles)—almost exactly the same size as Antarctica—and has been inhabited by humans for close to 20,000 years. It consists of the ice-covered Arctic Ocean and surrounding land, including all of Greenland and Spitsbergen, and the northern parts of Alaska, Canada, Norway, and Russia.
Its boundary is defined by either the northern limit of stands of trees on land (the treeline), the line of average July temperature of ~10°C (50°F), or the Arctic Circle, an imaginary line of latitude located at 66 degrees 33 minutes North. North of this line, the sun never sets on the summer solstice (June 21st).Some of the land parts of the Arctic, like Greenland, are covered with ice sheets; others, like Alaska, have lush tundra.
These areas have large mammals, such as caribou, bears, wolves and foxes, and a variety of plants. In summer, migratory birds and other wildlife come to the Arctic to raise their young. The size and shape of the Arctic Ocean Basins are roughly similar to those of the Antarctic continent, and is 1.5 times the size of the continental US. The Arctic Ocean seafloor is subdivided by three great parallel mountain ranges, or ridges, between Greenland and Siberia. The Nansen-Gakkel Ridge (Arctic Mid-Ocean It is also very deep, reaching more than 4,000 meters (13,000 feet or 2½ miles) in some areas. It is mostly covered by pack ice (frozen seawater) averaging 2-3 meters (6-10 feet) thick. The ice drifts around the polar basin under the influence of winds and currents. When the floes collide, the ice forms a jagged line of ice chunks known as a pressure ridge
medical transcription
Antarctic
Antarctic Treaty defers claims; sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land) and United Kingdom. The United States and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the U.S. reserves the right to do so). No formal claims have been made in the sector between 90° W and 150° W.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
None presently exploited. Iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Antarctic Treaty defers claims; sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land) and United Kingdom. The United States and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the U.S. reserves the right to do so). No formal claims have been made in the sector between 90° W and 150° W.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
None presently exploited. Iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Monday, March 23, 2009
A Flexible, Mobile Career Choice
The Medical Transcription field is flexible, portable, and in demand. Many medical transcriptionists (MTs) work from their homes as independent contractors, subcontractors, or home-based employees.
Because a large amount of the work is received and submitted over the Internet, an MT can live in Texas, work for a company based in Philadelphia, and transcribe for a hospital in California. If you currently live in Florida but need to relocate to Washington, you can take your job with you. High Quality Online Instruction from a Leader in Distance Education Central Texas College consistently ranks in the top twenty online programs. CTC is accredited by the Commission on Colleges,
Southern Association of Colleges & Schools, is a member of the Servicemembers Opportunity College (SOC), is an original educational partner in both eArmyU and GoArmyEd, and is a member of SLOAN-C Distance Education Consortium.We work with top educators and professionals in the field to ensure that you receive the very best quality instruction.
Our program has been approved by the Approval Committee for Certificate Programs (ACCP), a joint committee established by the American Association of Medical Transcription (AAMT) and the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA) for certifying and approving medical transcription education programs.
Because a large amount of the work is received and submitted over the Internet, an MT can live in Texas, work for a company based in Philadelphia, and transcribe for a hospital in California. If you currently live in Florida but need to relocate to Washington, you can take your job with you. High Quality Online Instruction from a Leader in Distance Education Central Texas College consistently ranks in the top twenty online programs. CTC is accredited by the Commission on Colleges,
Southern Association of Colleges & Schools, is a member of the Servicemembers Opportunity College (SOC), is an original educational partner in both eArmyU and GoArmyEd, and is a member of SLOAN-C Distance Education Consortium.We work with top educators and professionals in the field to ensure that you receive the very best quality instruction.
Our program has been approved by the Approval Committee for Certificate Programs (ACCP), a joint committee established by the American Association of Medical Transcription (AAMT) and the American Health Information Management Association (AHIMA) for certifying and approving medical transcription education programs.
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